Physics – Condensed Matter – Materials Science
Scientific paper
2003-05-06
Reviews of Modern Physics 75 (3), 949-983 2003
Physics
Condensed Matter
Materials Science
In press (Reviews of Modern Physics, scheduled for July 2003), 86 pages, 44 figures
Scientific paper
10.1103/RevModPhys.75.949
This article reviews the progress of atomic force microscopy (AFM) in ultra-high vacuum, starting with its invention and covering most of the recent developments. Today, dynamic force microscopy allows to image surfaces of conductors \emph{and} insulators in vacuum with atomic resolution. The mostly used technique for atomic resolution AFM in vacuum is frequency modulation AFM (FM-AFM). This technique, as well as other dynamic AFM methods, are explained in detail in this article. In the last few years many groups have expanded the empirical knowledge and deepened the theoretical understanding of FM-AFM. Consequently, the spatial resolution and ease of use have been increased dramatically. Vacuum AFM opens up new classes of experiments, ranging from imaging of insulators with true atomic resolution to the measurement of forces between individual atoms.
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