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Sep 2008
adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=2008epsc.conf..427k&link_type=abstract
European Planetary Science Congress 2008, Proceedings of the conference held 21-25 September, 2008 in Münster, Germany. Online a
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Scientific paper
From drag measurements obtained by Pioneer Venus and Magellan, the Venus upper atmosphere was discovered to be much colder than Earth's, even though Venus is much closer to the Sun than the Earth. On the dayside, exospheric temperatures are near 300K compared to Earth's of near 1200K [1]. This is thought to result principally from 15 micron excitation of carbon dioxide by atomic oxygen resulting in very strong 15 micron emission to space, cooling off the upper atmosphere [2]. On the nightside the Venus upper atmosphere is near 100K [3], compared to Earth where temperatures are near 900K. The nightside Venus temperatures drop with altitude contrary to a thermosphere where temperatures rise with altitude. As a result, the very cold nightside is called a "cryosphere" rather than a thermosphere. This is the first cryosphere discovered in the solar system [1]. Temperatures sharply drop near the terminator. Apparently, heat is somehow blocked near the terminator from being significantly transported to the nightside [4]. Recently, drag studies were performed on a number of Earth satellites to establish whether the rise of carbon dioxide on Earth was cooling the Earth's thermosphere similar to the dayside of Venus. Keating et al. [5] discovered that a 10 percent drop in density near 350km at solar minimum occurred globally over a period of 20 years with a 10 per cent rise in carbon dioxide. This should result in about a factor of 2 decline in density from 1976 values, by the end of the 21st century brought on by thermospheric cooling. Subsequent studies have confirmed these results. Thus we are beginning to see the cooling of Earth's upper atmosphere apparently from the same process cooling the Venus thermosphere. Fig. 1 VIRA Exospheric Temperatures Atmospheric drag data from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Magellan were combined to generate an improved version of the Venus International Reference Atmosphere (VIRA) [6], [7]. A "fountain effect" was discovered where the atmosphere rises on the dayside producing adiabatic cooling and drops on the nightside producing some adiabatic heating. (See figure 1). The thermosphere was discovered from drag measurements to respond to the near 27-day period of the rotating Sun, for which regions of maximum solar activity reappear every 27 days. The increased euv emission from active regions increased temperatures and thermospheric density, (See Figure 2). Fig. 2 Exospheric Temperatures Compared to 10.7cm Solar Index Second diurnal survey (12/5/79 - 3/6/80) Pioneer Venus Orbiter measurements (OAD) 11 day running means [2] Estimates were also made of the response to the 11- year Solar Cycle by combining the Pioneer Venus and Magellan data. Dayside exospheric temperatures changed about 80K over the solar cycle, [8]. Earlier estimates of temperature change gave 70K based on Lyman alpha measurements. The responses to solar variability were much weaker than on Earth due apparently to the much stronger O/CO2 cooling on Venus which tended to act as a thermostat on thermospheric temperatures. Another discovery from drag measurements was the 4 to 5 day oscillation of the Venus thermosphere [3], (See figure 3). These oscillations are interpreted as resulting from the 4-day super-rotation of the atmosphere near the cloud tops. Other indications of the super-rotation of the thermosphere come from displacement of the helium bulge and atomic hydrogen bulge from midnight to near 4AM. Fig. 3 Four to Five Day Oscillations in Thermospheric Densities Magellan 1992. During 2008, the Venus Express periapsis will be dropped from 250km down to approximately 180km to allow drag measurements to be made in the North Polar Region, [9]. Drag measurements above 200km have already been obtained from both Pioneer Venus and Magellan so measurements near 180km should be accurate. In 2009, the periapsis may be decreased to a lower altitude allowing accelerometer measurements to be obtained of drag as a function of altitude, to determine density, scale height, inferred temperature, pressure, and other parameters as a function of altitude. The risk involved in the orbital decay and accelerometer measurements is minimal. We have not lost any spacecraft orbiting Venus or Mars due to unexpected thermospheric drag effects in over 30 years. The Venus Express accelerometer drag experiment is very similar to accelerometer experiments aboard Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter which orbit Mars. The Venus Express drag measurements of the polar region will allow a global empirical model of the thermosphere to emerge. Previous drag measurements have been made principally near the equator. The experiment may help us understand on a global scale, tides, winds, gravity waves, planetary waves, and the damping of waves. Comparisons will be made between low and high latitude results; between the middle and upper atmosphere; and with other instruments that provide information from current and previous measurements. The character of the sharp temperature gradient near the day/night terminator needs to be studied at all latitudes. The cryosphere we discovered on the nightside needs to be studied at high latitudes. The rotating vortex dipole over the North Pole surrounded by a colder "collar" needs to be analyzed to identify how wave activity extends into the polar thermosphere. We have already discovered super-rotation in the equatorial thermosphere, but we need to study 4-day super-rotation at higher latitudes to obtain a global picture of the thermosphere. The super-rotation may affect escape rates and the evolution of the atmosphere. References: [1] Keating, G. M., et al: Venus Thermosphere and Exosphere: First Satellite Drag Measurements of an Extraterrestrial Atmosphere. Science, Vol. 203, No. 4382, 772-774, Feb. 23, 1979. [2] Keating, G. M. and Bougher, S.W.: Isolation of Major Venus Cooling Mechanism and Implications for Earth and Mars, Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 97, 4189-4197, 1992. [3] Keating, G.M.; Taylor, F.W.; Nicholson, J. V. II; and Hinson, E.W. : Short-Term Cyclic Variations and Diurnal Variations of the Venus Upper Atmosphere, Science, Vol. 205, No. 4401, 62-64, July 6, 1979. [4] Bougher, S. W.; Dickinson, R. E.; Ridley, E. C.; Roble, R. G.; Nagy, A. F.; and Cravens, T. E.: Venus mesosphere and thermosphere, II, Global circulation, temperature, and density variations, Icarus, Vol. 68, 284-312, 1986. [5] Keating, G. M. et al.: Evidence of Long-Term Global Decline in the Earth's Thermospheric Densities Apparently Related to Anthropogenic Effects, Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 27, No. 10, 1522-1526, 2000. [6] Keating, G. M. et al.: Models of Venus Neutral Upper Atmosphere Structure and Composition: The Venus International Reference Atmosphere (Edited by A. L. Kliore, V. I. Moros, and G. M. Keating) Advances in Space Research, Vol. 5, No. 11, 117-171,1985. [7] Keating, G. M.; Hsu, N.C., and Lyu, J.: Improved Thermospheric Model for the Venus International Reference Atmosphere, Proceedings of the 31st Scientific Assembly of COSPAR, Birmingham, England, 139, 1996 (Invited) [8] Keating, G. M. and Hsu, N. C.: The Venus Atmospheric Response to Solar Cycle Variations, Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 20, 2751-2754, 1993. [9] Keating, G.M. et al: Future drag measurements from Venus Express. Adv
Bougher Stephen
Keating Garrett
Theriot Michael
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